Power supply monitoring system

ABSTRACT

A method for detecting predetermined fault conditions associated with the supply of AC electrical power to a consumer, the supply having an active conductor and a neutral conductor with the neutral conductor being connected to earth. The method comprises providing a first current detector associated with the active conductor; providing a second current detector associated with the neutral conductor; providing a voltage detector to detect voltage between the active conductor and the neutral conductor; and checking a current ratio of neutral current to active current whereby the current ratio is indicative of a predetermined fault condition. Also disclosed is a method of checking the condition of supply line active and neutral conductors in a consumer&#39;s supplied premises including determining the impedance of the active conductor and the impedance of the neutral conductor to indicate the condition of each of the active and neutral conductors.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application a continuation application of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 12/312,628, filed on May 18, 2009, which is a National PhasePatent Application of International Application No. PCT/AU2007/001810,filed on Nov. 23, 2007, which claims priority from AustralianProvisional Patent Application No. 2006906590 filed on 24 Nov. 2006, thecontents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to an AC power supply monitoring system andrelates particularly to a system to monitor fault conditionsparticularly in domestic, commercial and industrial, single phase powersupplies. However, the invention may be adapted for use in monitoringfault conditions in three phase supply. However, for ease ofunderstanding the invention, it will be described with reference tosingle phase supply systems.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Single phase power supply systems throughout Australia and in many partsof the world comprise an active conductor and a neutral conductor whichis generally maintained at earth potential by being connected to anearthing system at various points throughout the distribution system,including at a consumer's switch board.

A potential fault situation which sometimes arises and which may be of amajor concern to the supply authority and the power user is that ofreverse polarity. Reverse polarity may occur through reversing theneutral and active connections at the electricity meter on the premisesof the user or at the supply pole from which the service is supplied.With a reverse polarity fault condition, an extremely hazardoussituation occurs as dangerous active voltage may be present on theneutral, giving rise to dangerous voltage levels present on the earthsystem of the user. Many earth systems are connected through water pipesand the like which, in the event of a reverse polarity fault, will giverise to extremely hazardous conditions.

Another fault situation which can create hazardous conditions for theelectricity user is that of a neutral failure. If for example, theneutral wire connecting the user's premises to the power system isaccidentally disconnected, such as by a tree or the like cutting thewire, all of the current flow is forced into the user's earth systemrather than the neutral connection. This can create the problem of ahazardous voltage on the user's earth, particularly if an earthconnection has a higher than expected resistance.

A further potentially hazardous fault situation is a broken or highresistance customer earth system.

At the present time, such fault conditions can only be ascertained byconducting specific fault tests on consumer's premises. Such testing istime consuming and expensive and is, therefore, carried out veryinfrequently if at all. The faults referred to are not detected by thestandard, mechanical electricity meter, or in house Residual CurrentDevice (RCDs).

Accordingly, it is desirable to provide a system which can detectpredetermined fault conditions which are present on or arise in aconsumer's premises.

It is also desirable to provide a method and system for detecting faultconditions that does not require physical change to be made to aconsumer's switchboard or meter board.

It is also desirable to provide a system, and method, to constantlymonitor the power supply to a consumer's premises and detectpredetermined fault conditions. It is also desirable to provide a methodand system which may be adapted to disconnect a supply to a consumer'spremises on detection of predetermined fault conditions.

It is also desirable to provide a system and method for detectingpredetermined fault conditions associated with the power supply to aconsumer's premises which is relatively simply, easy and economic toimplement.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a system fordetecting one or more predetermined fault conditions associated with thesupply of AC electrical power to a consumer, the supply having an activeconductor and a neutral conductor, the neutral conductor being connectedto earth, the system comprising:

a first current detector associated with the active conductor;

a second current detector associated with the neutral conductor;

a voltage detector to detect voltage between the active conductor andthe neutral conductor; and

a contactor switch in the active conductor.

With such a system, a condition such as reverse polarity can be simplyand easily detected. With the contactor switch in the active conductoropened, any current detected on the neutral conductor indicates areverse polarity.

Preferably, a second contactor switch is provided on the neutralconductor to enable the neutral conductor to be disconnected from thesupply in the event that a reverse polarity is detected. The contactorswitches in either or both of the active and neutral conductors may becontrolled by the supply authority. Thus, if current is detected on theneutral connection with the open contactor on the active connection, thesupply authority can open the neutral contactor switch.

The system of the invention may also detect other faults such as abroken neutral conductor, a broken customer earth connection, a shortcircuit between the active and neutral conductor in the low voltagesupply line, and a short circuit between the active and the customer'searth.

Thus, for a broken neutral conductor, all incoming current on the activeconductor will exit the customer's installation through the customer'searth connection. Therefore, zero current will exit through thecustomer's neutral, and the current detector on that neutral conductorwill show a zero current flow.

Similarly, a broken customer earth may be detected by measuring thecurrents on both the active and neutral conductors. During normalpolarity, the neutral current will always be less than the current onthe active due to a small percentage of the current returning throughthe customer's earth, which may have a resistance of between 5 and 70Ohms. Consequently, if the active and neutral currents are identical,this indicates a broken earth, which must then be further investigated.

Other fault conditions may also be detected by the system of the presentinvention.

According to another aspect of the invention there is provided a methodfor detecting one or more predetermined fault conditions associated withthe supply of AC electrical power to a consumer, the supply having anactive conductor and a neutral conductor, the neutral conductor beingconnected to earth, the method comprising the steps of:

providing a first current detector associated with the active conductor;

providing a second current detector associated with the neutralconductor;

providing a voltage detector to detect voltage between the activeconductor and the neutral conductor;

checking a current ratio of neutral current to active current wherebythe current ratio is indicative of a predetermined fault condition.

In using the method of the invention, a normal connection without anyfaults will show a current ratio less than 1 due to the fact that theneutral current will always be less than the current on the active, asindicated above. However, if a reverse polarity connection is present,the current on the neutral will be split between the earth and theactive so that the active will have less current than that on theneutral. The ratio, therefore, will be greater than 1. If, as indicatedabove, a broken neutral is present on the system, all incoming currenton the active will exit through the earth and, therefore, zero currentwill appear on the neutral. Therefore, the current ratio will be zero.

If, with a normal polarity and a broken customer earth, all of theincoming current on the active will exit through the neutral and,therefore, the current ratio will equal 1. Similarly, with reversepolarity, and a broken customer earth, all the incoming current on theneutral will exit through the customer's active so that the ratio willagain equal 1.

Where a short circuit is present on the supply service between theactive and neutral, the majority of the supply current will return viathe neutral line, and a small part will return via the custom's earth.This will force the current on the neutral to flow through thecustomer's meter in the reverse direction on the neutral. No currentwill flow through the active line in the customer's meter so that thecurrent ratio will equal minus infinity

While the above test will provide a reliable guide as to the existenceof the predetermined fault conditions, a further, direct resistance testmay also be used to measure the customer's earth resistance and the LVservice neutral resistance.

Another test that may be carried out is to check if the supply voltageis within a predetermined acceptable range whereby the consumer isdisconnected if the voltage falls below a preset minimum.

Preferably, the method further includes providing a contactor switch inthe active conductor to enable remote disconnection of the consumer bythe supply authority. A second contactor switch may also be provided inthe neutral conductor.

According to a further aspect of the invention, there is provided amethod of checking the condition of supply line active and neutralconductors in a consumer's supplied premises comprising the steps of:

measuring a supply voltage across the active and neutral conductors at apredetermined time;

measuring the current in each of the active conductor and neutralconductor at the predetermined time;

measuring the supply voltage and each of the currents in the active andneutral conductors after a switching event, said switching eventincluding adding or removing a load; and

determining the impedance of the active conductor and the impedance ofthe neutral conductor to indicate the condition of each of the activeand neutral conductors.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In order that the invention is more readily understood, embodiments willnow be described with reference to the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a schematic circuit diagram illustrating a normal power supplyto a consumer;

FIG. 2 is a simplified circuit diagram illustrating the normal currentflow;

FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic circuit diagram illustrating a reverse polarityconnection;

FIG. 4 diagrammatically illustrates features of an electricity meter inaccordance with an embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 5 diagrammatically illustrates a reverse polarity circuit utilisingthe meter of FIG. 4;

FIG. 6 is a diagrammatic circuit diagram illustrating the describedembodiment;

FIG. 7 is a diagram showing a simplified version of Carson's Equations;

FIG. 8 is a diagram showing a modified version of Carson's Equations;

FIGS. 9 and 10 are plots of current ratio against earth resistance forvarying values of neutral resistance; and

FIGS. 11 to 14 are plots of combined neutral and active impedanceagainst earth resistance for varying values of neutral and activeresistance.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Referring to the drawings, existing mechanical electricity meters areunable to detect the integrity of the neutral connection, the customer'searth or a reverse polarity. However, with the introduction ofelectronic electricity meters (EEMs), this has become possible. Althoughit would be possible to completely redesign an electricity meter andswitchboard that would be able to detect the described fault conditions,the cost of such changes is unrealistic. Accordingly, embodiments of thepresent invention have been designed to utilise existing electricitymeters and switchboards to obviate or minimise any physical changes.

FIG. 1 illustrates an existing customer's electrical connection to apower supply system. The electricity meter 12 is connected to the activeconductor 14 and the neutral conductor 16 extending from the supplyauthorities distribution system. A service fuse 17, usually located on atelegraph pole or the like external of the consumer's premises, providesprimary service protection.

Electricity meter 12 has a low impedance current coil 18 to detectcurrent flow through the meter 12 and a high impedance voltage coil 19to detect voltage across the active-neutral. Due to the alternatingcurrent supply, current flows in both directions through the consumer'sswitchboard 21 which, generally, incorporates a residual current device(RCD) 20, although not all circuits are so protected. Accordingly, if anearth fault occurs in the consumer's premises, the flow of energy willfollow the dotted lines 23 to the earth connection 22.

As seen in FIG. 2, in a normal polarity connection, the current flow(during the positive half of the voltage cycle) is in the direction ofthe arrows. The neutral conductor 16 is connected to earth through theconsumer's switchboard 21 as well as externally through the supplynetwork (not shown). Thus, assuming a simple load 24, a supply voltageof 240 volts, the voltage drop across the load is 240 volts, assumingthe impedance of the neutral conductor 16 is zero. Nominally, no currentwill flow through the customer's earth although, in practice, with anearth connection having a resistance typically between 5 Ohm and 70 Ohm,a small current may flow through the earth connection 22.

Of course, during the negative portion of the voltage cycle, the currentflows in the reverse direction.

Referring to FIG. 3, a reverse polarity connection is diagrammaticallyillustrated whereby the active conductor 14 is connected to thecustomer's neutral conductor 16 a. Because the supply authoritiesneutral conductor 16 is connected to earth at point B, the full supplyvoltage (240 volts) will be present on the consumer's neutral conductor16 a. Accordingly, the voltage appearing across the load 24 will be 240volts with current flowing in the direction of the arrows, and,additionally, the voltage across the earth connection 22 will also be240 volts resulting in a current flow to earth as shown. Such a reversepolarity connection, therefore, potentially introduces 240 volts intothe consumer's earth connection 22 giving rise to extremely hazardousand potentially fatal conditions.

Another potentially hazardous fault condition is a broken neutralconnection 16 or 16 a which forces all load current through thecustomer's earth rather than the neutral connection. With such a fault,the consumer may not notice any difference in power usage, and thepresent electricity meters will not detect this fault situation.

The new electronic electricity meters are provided with a second currentcoil 26 (FIG. 4) on the neutral conductor 16 a. The purpose of thiscurrent coil is for detection of power theft, and is used to ensure thatthe current flow on the active conductor 14 is greater than that on theneutral conductor 16. The new meters also include a contactor switch 27on the active conductor 14. This contactor switch 27 is able to beremotely operated by the power supply company to remotely disconnectsupply to a premises in the event that a fault condition is detected,that fraud is detected or the distribution company is required todisconnect the customer.

In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention, theelectricity meter 12 is provided with a second contactor switch 28 inthe neutral conductor 16 a. The second contactor switch 28 is preferablyremotely operable although it may be a switch which can be actuated ondetection of a reverse polarity condition whereby it is necessary todisconnect the supply active from the consumer's neutral conductor 16 a.

Using the modification shown in FIG. 4, a reverse polarity connectionmay be detected during an initial “start-up”, when a consumer is firstconnected to the supply. As shown in FIG. 5, the test involves openingthe active contactor switch 27 and, using the second current coil 26,checking for the presence of current in the neutral conductor 16 a. Ifcurrent is detected, this indicates a reverse polarity connection andthe second contactor switch 28 is immediately opened to disconnect thecustomer's premises totally from the supply system. Of course, if nocurrent exists through the second current coil 26, then reverse polarityis not present. It will be appreciated that when a reverse polaritycondition is present, the power from the supply active flows directly tothe consumer's neutral conductor 16 a and through the consumer's earthconnector 22.

While this method of detecting reverse polarity fault conditions issimple and easy to implement, it does not have the ability to detect theintegrity of the neutral conductors 16 and 16 a or the customer's earthconnector 22. Accordingly, a second method has been devised in order todetect such fault conditions in real time with a live power connection.The method will enable detection of:

reverse polarity;

broken neutral;

broken customer earth;

short circuit between active and neutral conductor in the LV supply(supply authorities side of the connection);

short circuit between active and the earth.

The method involves comparing the ratio of the current on the activeconductor 14 with the current on the neutral conductor 16 a. As shown inFIG. 6, and noting that circuit behaviour modelled in the followingdescription demonstrates the AC input voltage in its positive cycle,although results are valid for the full cycle AC input, the supplyvoltage source 31 supplies a nominal 240 volts to the consumer'spremises. With both contactor switches 27 and 28 closed, the currentflow through the current coils 18 and 26 are measured and compared.During normal polarity, the neutral current will always be less than thecurrent on the active. This is because a small percentage of the currentwill always return through the customer's earth. Therefore, the currentratio I_(n)/I_(a) is less than 1. If a reverse polarity fault conditionwas present, the incoming current on the neutral conductor 16 a will besplit between the earth and the active conductor 14. Therefore, thecurrent on the neutral conductor 16 a will always be greater than thecurrent on the active conductor 14. Therefore, the ratio I_(n)/I_(a) isgreater than 1.

In the event that a broken neutral condition exists on the system, allincoming current on the active conductor line 14 will exit thecustomer's installation through the customer's earth 22. Therefore, zerocurrent will exit through the customer's neutral and the current ratioI_(n)/I_(a) will equal zero.

With the fault condition of a broken customer earth, with normalpolarity connection, all incoming current on the active line 14 willexit through the neutral 16 a so that the current ratio I_(n)/I_(a) willequal 1.

With a broken custom earth during a reverse polarity fault condition,all the incoming current on the neutral line 16 a will exit through thecustomer's active conductor 14 so that the current ratio I_(n)/I_(a)will also equal 1.

Both broken customer earth fault conditions indicated by a current ratioof 1 require immediate investigation, and the customer supply may bedisconnected by remote activation by either one or both contactorswitches 27 and 28 until the inspection determines and corrects thefault condition. (A visual indicator could also be shown on the meter).

In the event of a fault condition comprising a short circuit between theactive conductor 14 and the neutral conductor 16, upstream of thecustomer meter 12, the majority of the supply current will returnthrough the neutral line 16 a, and a small part will return via thecustomer's earth. This will force the current on the neutral conductorto flow through the customer's meter in the reverse direction on theneutral. No current will flow through the meter's active conductor 14 sothat the current ratio will be negative infinity.

In the event of a fault condition comprising a short circuit on the LVservice of the supply authority between the active and the earth,upstream of the customer meter 12, the majority of the supply currentwill return via the neutral line and a small part will return via thecustomer's earth 22. This will force the current on the neutral to flowthrough the meter in the positive direction on the neutral, and nocurrent will flow through the meter's active line 14. The current ratio,therefore, will equal infinity.

In accordance with another embodiment of the invention, an advancedcurrent ratio test may be used when, from the behaviour of the circuit,it can be shown that the neutral integrity can be assessed as itsresistance approaches 1 Ohm (the maximum allowable resistance).Referring to FIG. 6, it will be seen that as the resistance of theneutral conductor 16 a increases from 0 to infinity, the current ratiowill reduce from 1 to 0. Therefore, at some point in this range, whenthe value of neutral resistance is equal to 1 Ohm, a specific ratiocould be determined. However, the consumer's earth connection 22 is nota fixed value, and may vary between about 5 Ohm and 70 Ohms. It will benoted that, in order to meet the requirements of the electricitystandards, the customer earth resistance should be less than 70 Ohms andthe neutral resistance should be less than 1 Ohm. Based on soilconditions, it is hypothesised that the customer's earth resistance isalways greater than 5 Ohms.

In order to solve this problem mathematically, Carson's Equations mustbe used. Carson's Equations model the behaviour of long paralleloverhead conductors with a return path through ground. Due to the highreactance of the current travelling through the ground, the majority ofthe current is forced to return through the neutral line.

Carson's Equations model this situation mathematically.

Simplified Carson's Equations

FIG. 7 shows the simplified Carson's Equations diagram.

Using FIG. 7, Carson's Equations can be used to solve the above parallellines assuming conductor q is a ground wire.

$\begin{matrix}{Z_{p} = {r_{p} + \left( {9.689 \times 10^{- 4} \times f} \right) + {{j\left( {4\; \pi \; f \times {\ln \left( \frac{D_{e}}{{GMR}_{c}} \right)}} \right)}{{ohm}/{km}}}}} & (1) \\{Z_{pq} = {\left( {9.689 \times 10^{- 4} \times f} \right) + {{j\left( {4\; \pi \; f \times {\ln \left( \frac{D_{e}}{D_{pq}} \right)}} \right)}{{ohm}/{km}}}}} & (2) \\{V_{p} = {{I_{p}Z_{p}} + {I_{q}Z_{pq}}}} & (3) \\{V_{q} = {{I_{p}Z_{pq}} + {I_{q}Z_{q}}}} & (4)\end{matrix}$

Let conductor q be a ground wire, in which case V_(g)=0, since both endsof this conductor are connected to ground.

Therefore, we can solve for the ratio

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{I_{q}}{I_{p}}} & \; \\{V_{q} = {{I_{p}Z_{pq}} + {I_{q}Z_{q}}}} & (5) \\{V_{q} = 0} & (6) \\{{I_{p}Z_{pq}} = {{- I_{q}}Z_{q}}} & (7) \\{\frac{I_{q}}{I_{p}} = {- \frac{Z_{pq}}{Z_{q}}}} & (8)\end{matrix}$

Equation (8) cannot be used as it does not take into account thegrounding resistance that exists within the system. The above example isfor a purely theoretical situation. The customer's earth probe has afinite surface area in contact with the ground, therefore creating afinite resistance.

Carson's Equations Modified for Analysis

In order to simulate our system, a ground resistance must be introducedinto the system. In order to simplify the equation, the earth resistanceat the source has been ignored as it is insignificant in comparison tothe customer resistance. This is based on the source earth resistancebeing CMEN with multiple earths.

FIG. 8 has been used to model the scenario.

V _(a) =I _(a) Z _(a) +I _(n) Z _(an) +I _(a) R _(L) +I _(e) R _(e)  (9)

V _(n) =I _(a) Z _(an) +I _(n) Z _(n) +I _(c) R _(c)  (10)

I _(a) =I _(n) =I _(e)  (11)

V _(n)=0  (12)

Substituting equations 11 and 12 into equation 10 yields:

$\begin{matrix}{0 = {{I_{a}Z_{an}} + {I_{n}Z_{n}} + {I_{a}R_{e}} + {I_{n}R_{e}}}} & (13) \\{{{I_{a}\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)} + {I_{n}\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}} = 0} & (14) \\{\frac{I_{n}}{I_{a}} = {- \frac{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}}} & (15)\end{matrix}$

In the circuit diagram of FIG. 6, I_(n) is defined as flowing in theopposite direction, therefore we can remove the negative symbol.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{I_{n}}{I_{a}} = \frac{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}} & (16)\end{matrix}$

Given that

$\begin{matrix}{Z_{n} = {r_{n} + \left( {9.689 \times 10^{- 4} \times f} \right) + {{j\left( {4\pi \; f \times {\ln \left( \frac{D_{e}}{{GMR}_{c}} \right)}} \right)}{{ohm}/{km}}}}} & (17) \\{Z_{an} = {\left( {9.689 \times 10^{- 4} \times f} \right) + {{j\left( {4\; \pi \; f \times \ln \left( \frac{D_{e}}{D_{an}} \right)} \right)}{{ohm}/{km}}}}} & (18) \\{D_{e} = {658.37 \times \sqrt{\frac{\rho}{f}}}} & (19) \\{{GMR}_{c} = {0.7788r}} & (20)\end{matrix}$

Where

-   D_(e)=Equivalent Depth (metres)-   f=frequency (hertz)-   p=Earth Resistivity (Ohm metres)-   GMR_(C)=Geometric Mean Radius (metres)-   r=radius of conductor (metres)-   r_(a)=AC Resistance of neutral conductor-   r_(n)=AC Resistance of neutral conductor-   D_(an)=Distance between conductors a-n (metres)-   R_(e)=Customer earth resistance

Mathematical Analysis of Circuit

The circuit was analysed for varying values of the Neutral Resistanceand the Earth Resistance. The Earth Resistance was limited between 5 and70 Ohms as previously described.

TABLE 1 Value Units Description Active Conductor r_(a) 0.223 Ohm/km ACResistance of Active conductor GMR_(c) 0.00616 metres Geometric meanradius of conductor Neutral Conductor r_(n) Varied Ohm/km AC Resistanceof Neutral conductor GMR_(c) 0.00616 metres Geometric mean radius ofconductor Other D(an) 1.2 metres Distance between active & neutral F 50hz frequency of system ρ 100 Ohm Metres Earth Resistivity D(e) 931.08Equivalent Depth Note: The conductor used was 19/3.25 AAC, also referredto as Neptune. The LV service conductor was ignored for this analysis.

The largest value of r_(n) that could be present before the neutral wasoutside of specifications would be r_(n)=3 Ohms/km. This assumes thatthe longest circuit length is 333 m.

When the different values of AC resistances were substituted into theequation, the following results shown in FIG. 9 were obtained.

FIG. 9 shows that:

-   -   For low neutral resistances, the ratio approaches 1    -   For high neutral resistances, the ratio approaches 0    -   As the earth resistance increases, the ratio increases    -   The minimum fault condition crosses the y axis at Ratio=0.945

A set ratio cannot be defined to allow for the detection of neutralresistance>1 Ohm. This is because there are two unknown variables, theearth and the neutral resistances.

This method allows the detection of neutral degradation to be analysedat increased accuracy from the previous tests. From the above graph twofixed analysis points can be derived. These are shown on the followinggraph:

-   -   For [0<I Ratio<0.94], Neutral Fail as degraded    -   For [0.94<I Ratio<1], Inconclusive.

For small values of earth resistance, the detection of neutraldegradation is very accurate. As the earth resistance increases, theability to detect neutral degradation reduces.

Therefore, by applying our previous knowledge we can increase ourdetection capability, as shown in the table below.

TABLE 2 Current Ratio Condition Detected Ratio < 0 Active/Neutral ShortRatio = 0 Broken Neutral 0 < Ratio < 0.94 Neutral Fail as degraded 0.94< Ratio < 1 Inconclusive Ratio = 1 Broken Customer Earth Ratio > 1Reverse Polarity Ratio = : Active/Customer Earth Short Note: The actualratio ranges are subject to laboratory analysis. This analysis is formathematical proof of concept only.

A further test must be carried out to investigate the inconclusive ratiotests where 0.94<Ratio<1. This is explained in detail below.

According to a further embodiment of the invention, a further simpleresistance test may be performed which minimises possible limitations ofcurrent ratio tests.

A potential difficulty with the advance current ratio test is that itmay fail to remove the customer's earth resistance as a variable fromthe ratio equation. The ratio becomes less meaningful as the customer'searth resistance increases and the ability to detect differences betweenratio profiles decreases as they all tend towards 1.

The objective of the following test is to analyse the combined impedanceof the neutral and active. By analysing the two impedances, thecondition of the line can be determined. This test has the ability toensure that the impedance of the active and neutral lines are withinspecifications.

For simplicity of explanation a simple analysis to prove the concept hasbeen used. This test requires that the meter 12 store the ‘no loadvoltage’ across the meter as a variable within its internal memory. Thisneeds to be completed when there is no current flowing through themeter. At this point the voltage across the meter shall equal the sourcevoltage. This shall be referred to as V_(ref). This voltage can bemeasured at the meter initialisation, or by disconnecting the activedisconnect switch. To ensure accurate results, the reference voltageshould be measured instantly before (or after) measuring the metervoltage (V_(m)).

The measured voltage on the meter shall be referred to as V_(m).

It is known from equations (9) to (20) in the abovementioned section“Carson's Equations modified for analysis”:

$\begin{matrix}{V_{a} = {{I_{a}Z_{a}} + {I_{n}Z_{an}} + {I_{a}R_{L}} + {I_{c}R_{c}}}} & (9) \\{{I_{a} + I_{n}} = I_{e}} & (11) \\{\frac{I_{n}}{I_{a}} = {- \frac{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}}} & (15)\end{matrix}$

It is known that:

V _(a) =V _(ref)  (21)

V _(in) =I _(a) R _(L)  (22)

Analysis 1—Factor I_(a)

Therefore:

$\begin{matrix}{{V_{ref} = {{I_{a}Z_{a}} - {\frac{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}I_{a}Z_{an}} + V_{m} + {\left( {I_{a} + I_{n}} \right)R_{e}}}}{{V_{ref} - V_{m}} = {{I_{a}Z_{a}} - {\frac{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}I_{a}Z_{an}} + {\left( {I_{a} + I_{n}} \right)R_{e}}}}{{V_{ref} - V_{m}} = {{I_{a}Z_{a}} - {\frac{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}I_{a}Z_{an}} + {I_{a}R_{e}} - {\frac{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}I_{a}R_{e}}}}{{V_{ref} - V_{m}} = {{I_{a}Z_{a}} - {\frac{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}I_{a}} + {I_{a}R_{e}}}}{\frac{V_{ref} - V_{m}}{I_{a}} = {Z_{a} + R_{e} - \frac{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)^{2}}{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}}}} & {(23)\text{-}(27)}\end{matrix}$

As can be seen from FIG. 12, this analysis will tend to underestimatethe value of the combined impedances for small earth resistances. As theearth resistance increases, the accuracy of this analysis will increase.

The major benefit of this methodology is that it does not require aneutral current detector.

Analysis 2—Factor I_(n)

The equations can be rearranged to solve with I_(n) rather than I_(a).

$\begin{matrix}{{V_{ref} = {{I_{a}Z_{a}} + {I_{n}Z_{an}} + V_{m} + {\left( {I_{a} + I_{n}} \right)R_{e}}}}{{V_{ref} - V_{m}} = {{{- \frac{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}}I_{n}Z_{a}} + {I_{n}Z_{an}} + {\left( {I_{a} + I_{n}} \right)R_{e}}}}{{V_{ref} - V_{m}} = {{{- \frac{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}}I_{n}Z_{a}} + {I_{n}Z_{an}} - {\frac{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}I_{n}R_{e}} + {I_{n}R_{e}}}}{\frac{V_{ref} - V_{m}}{I_{n}} = {{{- \frac{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}}Z_{a}} + Z_{an} - {\frac{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}R_{e}} + R_{e}}}{\frac{V_{ref} - V_{m}}{I_{n}} = {Z_{an} + R_{e} - \frac{\left( {Z_{n} + R_{e}} \right)\left( {Z_{a} + R_{e}} \right)}{\left( {Z_{an} + R_{e}} \right)}}}} & {(28)\text{-}(32)}\end{matrix}$

As can be seen from FIG. 12, this analysis will tend to overestimate thevalue of the combined impedances for small earth resistances. As theearth resistance increases, the accuracy of this analysis will increase.

Analysis 3—Combination of Factor I_(n) & I_(a)

As can be seen in FIG. 12, the Analysis 1 has a tendency tounderestimate the results for small earth resistances and analysis 2 hasa tendency to overestimate the result for small earth resistances. Tocompensate for these two short falls, the two analysis techniques havebeen averaged to find the best result.

From these results the upper limit for determining an error shall bewhen the result is greater than 2 (i.e., the impedance of the neutralplus active is greater than 2 Ohms). As an additional testing technique,the values of this result should be stored within the meter. If theresult exceeds a predefined delta change, then the installation shouldbe investigated or disconnected.

$\begin{matrix}{{{Result} = {{\frac{1}{2}\left( {{Analysis}{.1}} \right)} + {\frac{1}{2}\left( {{Analysis}{.2}} \right)}}}{{Result} = {{\frac{1}{2}\left( \frac{V_{ref} - V_{m}}{I_{a}} \right)} + {\frac{1}{2}\left( \frac{V_{ref} - V_{m}}{I_{n}} \right)}}}{{Result} = {\frac{1}{2}\left( {\frac{V_{ref} - V_{m}}{I_{a}} + \frac{V_{ref} - V_{m}}{I_{n}}} \right)}}{{Result} = {\frac{1}{2}\left( {\frac{\left( {V_{ref} - V_{m}} \right)I_{n}}{I_{a}I_{n}} + \frac{\left( {V_{ref} - V_{m}} \right)I_{a}}{I_{a}I_{n}}} \right)}}{{Result} = {\frac{1}{2}\left( \frac{\left( {V_{ref} - V_{m}} \right)\left( {I_{n} + I_{a}} \right)}{I_{a}I_{n}} \right)}}} & {(33)\text{-}(37)}\end{matrix}$

The analysis shown above will calculate the value for the active plusneutral impedance. The analysis of this equation is shown in FIGS. 11 to14.

For small values of Z_(a) and Z_(n), the result from the analysis willtend to underestimate actual values.

Analysis 3 is the preferred method for analysing the condition of theactive and neutral, but this test requires a disconnection. This testwould generally be completed in the middle of the night as part of aplanned test, or following a fault which causes a customer interruptionto minimise customer disruptions. The method described hereinafter inrelation to an Advanced Resistance Test has the capacity to completethis test without the need for a disconnection.

Advanced Resistance Test

The problem with the method described in relation to the SimpleResistance Test is that a disconnection to the customer is required.However, this test can be optimised to be done without any interruptionsto customers, meaning it can be completed in real time, under liveconditions.

In the Simple Resistance Test method, it uses the no load conditions toset a reference for which to compare to. However, this is not preferableas it requires the customer to be disconnected. In this AdvancedResistance Test, an alternative is to use the present load on thecustomer premises as the reference just prior to a switching event.Therefore the conditions just prior to the switching event would be thereference, and the values just after would be the measured values. Anexample of these switching events are the turning off or on of thefollowing equipment:

1. Air conditioner (~2000 W) 2. Toaster (~1000 W) 3. Kettle (~1000 W) 4.Heater (~1500 W) 5. Light Bulb  (~100 W)

As the meter has no way of forcing a switching event to occur (unless itis an electric hot water service controlled by the meter), the meterneeds to store historical data of the meter voltage and currents. Whenthe switching event occurs (it can be an increase or decrease in load),the meter can use the historical data as a reference. It should be notedthat variations to supply voltage and current at the transformer (fromother customers) may reduce the accuracy of this test. Therefore it isrecommended that a series of results are analysed, rather than a singleresult.

Therefore, the equations to analyse the line impedances can be writtenas follows:

-   V_(m) ^(h)=Historical meter Voltage-   V_(m) ^(p)=Present meter Voltage-   I_(a) ^(h)=Historical active current-   I_(a) ^(p)=Present active current-   I_(n) ^(h)=Historical neutral current-   I_(n) ^(p)=Present neutral current

$\begin{matrix}{{{\Delta \; V_{m}} = {V_{m}^{h} - V_{m}^{p}}}{{\Delta \; I_{a}} = {I_{a}^{h} - I_{a}^{p}}}{{\Delta \; I_{n}} = {I_{n}^{h} - I_{n}^{p}}}{{Result} = {\frac{1}{2}\left( \frac{\Delta \; {V_{m} \cdot \left( {{\Delta \; I_{a}} + {\Delta \; I_{n}}} \right)}}{\Delta \; {I_{a} \cdot \Delta}\; I_{n}} \right)}}} & {(38)\text{-}(41)}\end{matrix}$

With the introduction of this testing methodology, the contactor switch27 on the active conductor 14 is not required to determine theresistance of the active and neutral conductors, nor to detect reversepolarity.

In addition, if it was acceptable to reduce the accuracy of the testingslightly, then the neutral detection coil 26 would not be required todetect the resistance of the active and neutral conductors. However, ifthis coil 26 were removed, then reverse polarity could not be detected.The equation (42) shown below demonstrates how the approximateresistance of the active and neutral conductors can be calculated byonly using V_(m) and I_(a). This is an alteration to the equations (23)to (27).

$\begin{matrix}{{Result} = \frac{\Delta \; V_{m}}{\Delta \; I_{a}}} & (42)\end{matrix}$

A final test should check if the supply voltage is within theelectricity distribution code. If the voltage across the source fallsoutside this range, then the premise may need to be disconnected fromsupply.

As the SIR's allow for a 10% voltage drop within the customer'sinstallation, this shall be used to provide the minimum allowablevoltage before the customer is disconnected.

V = 216 − 10% = 196 V

Therefore, once the voltage across the electricity meter reads less than196V, the customer should be disconnected or the utility notified of apossible fault.

The described embodiments of this invention have many benefits, some ofwhich are:

-   -   Increased Safety:        -   Avoid fatalities and electric shocks caused by reverse            polarity        -   Avoid fatalities and electric shocks caused by deteriorated            neutral connections        -   Avoid fatalities and electric shocks caused by deteriorated            customer earths    -   Reduced costs:        -   Avoid NST testing the entire population of LV services every            10 years        -   Schedule replacement of LV services prior to failure,            therefore reducing the replacement costs.    -   Improve reliability:        -   Schedule replacement of LV services prior to failure,            therefore avoiding customer outages in fault conditions.    -   Improved Image:        -   Highlights electricity distributors as being proactive        -   Improves relations between regulators and distributors        -   Improved customer satisfaction.

It will be seen that it is theoretically possible to analyse theintegrity of the neutral connection and the customer's earth within therequirements of the electricity distribution code. In addition it ispossible to detect the presence of a reverse polarity condition. If themeter detects any of the above conditions, it can then safely disconnectthe customer premises from supply via the output contactors within theelectricity meter.

The techniques involved do not rely on the electricity meter fordetection of these events as the capability could be built into its ownseparate device. However, it is recognised that as the electricity meteralready contains many of the components, it is appropriate to use theexisting electronic meter and add the additional switching or otherfunctionality required in addition to the required logic within thedevice.

From the above detailed analysis, shown below is a summary of theanalysis techniques.

TABLE 3 When Test Result Condition Detected InitialisationInitialisation Test Current > 0 Reverse Polarity Real-Time Low VoltageVoltage < 196 V Active or Neutral or Earth Failure

TABLE 4 Advanced Resistance Current Ratio When Test Test ConditionDetected Real- NA Ratio < 0 Active/Neutral Short Time Real- NA Ratio = 0Broken Neutral Time Real- >2 0 < Ratio < 0.94 Neutral Fail as degradedTime Real- NA Ratio = 1 ¹Broken Customer Earth Time Real- NA Ratio > 1²Reverse Polarity (or Time illegal Cust. Connection) Real- NA Ratio = :Active/Customer Short Time Real- >2 0.94 [ Ratio < 1 Active Fail asdegraded Time Real- <2 0.94 [ Ratio < 1 System Normal Time Note: ¹Thisresult may be produced by the lack of sensitivity in measuringequipment. Note: ²A value of 1.1 will avoid any false tripping fromequipment inaccuracy.

-   -   It will be appreciated that it is not ideal to cause a customer        to experience multiple momentary interruptions for Direct        Resistance testing. Therefore it may be necessary to store the        last test date, and the resistance ratio results. This can then        be used for future analysis.    -   The electricity meter may need to have an override to avoid        performing tests in certain locations. An alternative option is        to be able to reduce/increase the detection limits. Further,        there are a lot of small variations that can be done to increase        detection performance and avoid unnecessary disconnection. Also,        the current/voltage detection coil may not be sensitive enough        for the requirements of this testing methodology. Additionally,        the contactor switch on the neutral needs to be capable of        isolating under full fault loading.

1. A method for detecting predetermined fault conditions associated withthe supply of AC electrical power to a consumer, the supply having anactive conductor and a neutral conductor, the neutral conductor beingconnected to earth, the method comprising the steps of: providing afirst current detector associated with the active conductor; providing asecond current detector associated with the neutral conductor; providinga voltage detector to detect voltage between the active conductor andthe neutral conductor; checking a current ratio of neutral current toactive current whereby the current ratio is indicative of apredetermined fault condition.
 2. A method according to claim 1 whereina normal connection without any faults is indicated by the current ratiobeing less than 1 as the neutral current will always be less than theactive current.
 3. A method according to claim 1 wherein thepredetermined fault condition is a reverse polarity connection indicatedby the current ratio being greater than
 1. 4. A method according toclaim 1 wherein the predetermined fault condition is a broken neutralindicated by the current ratio being equal to zero as all incomingcurrent on the active conductor exits through earth so that zero currentappears on the neutral conductor.
 5. A method according to claim 1wherein the predetermined fault condition is a broken customer earthwith a normal polarity indicated by the current ratio being equal to 1.6. A method according to claim 1 wherein the predetermined faultcondition is a broken customer earth with a reverse polarity indicatedby the current ratio being equal to
 1. 7. A method according to claim 1wherein the predetermined fault condition is a short circuit presentbetween the active conductor and the neutral conductor indicated by thecurrent ratio being equal to minus infinity.
 8. A method according toclaim 1 wherein the predetermined fault condition is a short circuitpresent between the active conductor and earth indicated by the currentratio being equal to infinity.
 9. A method according to claim 1 furthercomprising providing a contactor switch in the active conductor to andproviding a second contactor switch in the neutral conductor to enableremote disconnection of the consumer by the supply authority.
 10. Asystem for detecting one or more predetermined fault conditionsassociated with the supply of AC electrical power to a consumer, thesupply having an active conductor and a neutral conductor, the neutralconductor being connected to earth, the system comprising: a firstcurrent detector associated with the active conductor; a second currentdetector associated with the neutral conductor; a voltage detector todetect voltage between the active conductor and the neutral conductor;and a contactor switch in the active conductor.
 11. A system accordingto claim 10 wherein the one or more predetermined fault conditionsincludes reverse polarity whereby the contactor switch in the activeconductor is opened and any current detected on the neutral connectionindicates a said reverse polarity.
 12. A system according to claim 11further comprising a second contactor switch in the neutral conductor toenable the neutral conductor to be disconnected from the supply byopening the second contactor in the event that a reverse polarity isdetected.
 13. A system according to claim 12 wherein the contactorswitch in either or both of the active conductor and the neutralconductor is controlled by the supplier of the AC electrical power. 14.A system according to claim 10 in which the one or more predeterminedfault conditions include any of a broken neutral conductor, a brokencustomer earth connection, a short circuit between the active conductorand neutral conductor in the low voltage supply line, and a shortcircuit between the active conductor and the consumer earth connection.15. A system according to claim 14 where the predetermined faultcondition is a broken neutral conductor, all incoming current on theactive conductor exits the through the earth connection and zero currentexist through the neutral conductor, such that the second currentdetector shows a zero current flow.
 16. A system according to claim 14where the predetermined fault condition is a broken customer earth thatis detected by measuring the current on each of the active conductor andthe neutral conductor.
 17. A system according to claim 16 where thepredetermined fault condition is a broken customer earth and theconnection is normal polarity, detection of the broken customer earthoccurs when the current on the active conductor exits through theneutral conductor and therefore is of the same magnitude as the activeconductor current.
 18. A system according to claim 16 where thepredetermined fault condition is a broken customer earth and theconnection is reverse polarity, detection of the broken customer earthoccurs when the current on the neutral conductor exits through theactive conductor and therefore is of the same magnitude as the neutralconductor current.
 19. A system according to claim 14 where thepredetermined fault condition is a short circuit between the activeconductor and neutral conductor, the detection of which occurs when thesecond current detector detects current flowing through the neutralconductor and the consumer's meter in a reverse direction and when thefirst current detector does not detect any current in the activeconductor.
 20. A system according to claim 14 where the predeterminedfault condition is a short circuit between the active conductor andearth, the detection of which occurs when the second current detectordetects current flowing through the neutral conductor and the consumer'smeter in a forward or positive direction and when the first currentdetector does not detect any current in the active conductor.